Based on the changes to the CQE BoK, as well as helpful feedback from colleagues and reviewers, this revised edition contains the following major changes:. The editors included many new textbook and journal article references throughout the entire book. Within the discussion of continuous improvement methods, they added descriptions of and references to several case studies. These case studies, which include applications in the service industry, give the reader a broader context on how to apply many of the methods discussed in a real-life scenario.
In particular, some of these case studies are related to quality in the service industry. Line authority is the superior—subordinate relationship extending from the top of the organization to its lowest levels along a chain of command. A manager with line authority has the right to direct the work of subordinates and to make certain decisions without consulting others. As organizations become larger and more complex, however, line managers may lack the time, expertise, or resources to do their jobs effectively.
In response, staff functions are established, such as human resources see Chapter 8, Section 4 that have the authority to support and advise. Organizations now recognize that one does not have to be a manager to have influence, nor is influence always correlated to organizational level.
Today, authority is recognized as one aspect of the larger concept of power. Span of control is another design factor and refers to how many subordinates a manager can effectively and efficiently supervise. Although no consensus exists on an ideal number, many managers favor small spans —typically no more than six—in order to maintain close control.
As managers rise in the organizational hierarchy, they deal with a greater variety of complex and diverse problems. Typically, top executives have a smaller span of control than do middle managers, and middle managers require a smaller span than do supervisors. Therefore, to a large degree the span of control determines the number of levels and managers in an organization. Other things being equal, the wider or larger the span of control, the more efficient the organizational design.
Today, many organizations have reduced the number of managerial positions through restructuring while increasing the spans of control. In essence, individuals specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entire activity.
Assembly-line production, in which each worker repeatedly does a standardized task, is an example of division of labor.
Because some tasks require highly developed skills, while unskilled workers can perform others, division of labor makes efficient use of the diverse skills and capabilities of employees. If all workers in an organization were engaged in each step of the production process, every worker would need the skills to perform both the most demanding and the least demanding jobs.
The result would be that except when performing the most highly skilled or highly sophisticated tasks, employees would be working below their skill levels. Because skilled workers are paid more than unskilled workers and their wages tend to reflect their highest level of skills, paying highly skilled workers to do easy tasks would be an inefficient use of resources.
Historically, management has viewed the division of labor as an unending source of increased productivity. Eventually, certain drawbacks of division of labor exceed the economic advantages, including problems such as boredom, job stress, low productivity, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and high turnover. Organizations have discovered that by giving employees a variety of activities to do, allowing them to do a whole and complete piece of work, and putting them together into teams, jobs are more interesting, and higher quality often results.
Few organizations could function effectively if all decisions were made by a select group of top managers, nor could they do so if all decisions were delegated to the lowest levels of the organization. Fayol lists centralization as one of his 14 principles of management and notes that the proper amount of centralization or decentralization depends on the situation.
As organizational environments became more complex and dynamic, many organizations began to decentralize decision making. Many executives now believe that decisions should be made by those people with the best information to make the decisions, regardless of their level in the organization.
What works in one situation might not be best for another. It is worth noting that the current tendency is to move to flatter organizations having fewer hierarchical levels and more flexible reporting arrangements. Although a flatter organizational structure implies a wider span of control, information technologies have greatly simplified the processes of communication and decision making, allowing authority to be more widely dispersed.
Organizations are becoming managed more as horizontal processes for example, as a part of the supply chain or value chain , rather than vertical hierarchies. A matrix structure is one way of formalizing a structure that provides both effective horizontal, operational decision making as well as allowing development of functional specialties. Once the organization has made the transition, the parallel structure is dissolved.
Earlier, some of the aspects that affect organizational design—such as division of labor, distribution of authority, span of control, and employee knowledge and experience—were discussed. Many different structures can result from these decisions, and which one an organization selects is also impacted by larger factors, both internal and external.
Each organization has its own way of grouping work activities departmentalization. Following is a discussion of each of these structures, plus additional forms in which boundaries are more fluid.
One of the most common ways to group activities is by the function performed. A manufacturing plant might be organized by separating engineering, accounting, manufacturing, human resources, and purchasing specialists into departments as shown in Figure 1.
Functional departmentalization can be used in all types of organizations, with the name of the functions changed based on the types of skills required to achieve organizational objectives.
For example, a university hospital might have departments devoted to health research, patient care, facilities management, and finance.
Each major product group is placed under the authority of an executive who specializes in and is responsible for all aspects of that product line. This type of structure allows portions of the organization to focus on particular categories of product, allowing greater expertise to be gained of the market and product technology.
The particular type of customer an organization seeks to serve can also be used to define structure. The sales activities shown in Figure 1. Textbook publishers often organize by customer, such as those serving primary schools, high schools, and college or university levels.
The assumption underlying customer-stratified organizations is that customers in each grouping have a common set of problems and needs that will best be met by specialists who can focus on their needs. Another way to organize is by geography or territory. A large school district might have six high schools to serve each of the geographical areas within its district. A flow form of departmentalization is shown in Figure 1. Each department specializes in one specific phase or subprocess in the production of aluminum tubing.
The metal is cast in huge furnaces and sent to the press department, where it is extruded into aluminum pipe. It is then transferred to the tube mill, where it is stretched into various sizes and shapes of tubing. It then moves to finishing, where it is cut and cleaned, and finally arrives in the inspect, pack, and ship department. The competitive drive for improvement has made organizing by teams more common. This structure often overlays or replaces the rigid boundaries of departmentalization, bringing together individuals with needed competencies for a particular mission.
Employee empowerment is crucial because no rigid line of managerial authority flows from top to bottom. Team members are free to design work processes in the way they think best, and are held responsible for all work activity and performance results in their areas. For example, an insurance company reorganized its customer representatives into eight-person teams trained to expedite all customer requests. Rather than switching customers from one specialist to another, a team now takes care of every aspect of a customer request.
A matrix structure assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects led by a project manager. This arrangement was developed in the s by the U. In a typical matrix organization, specialists report to a line or project manager to integrate their expertise with those of other specialists.
They also report to a functional manager responsible for departmental human resource issues such as hiring, skill enhancement, assignments to line or project units, and performance reviews. Parts of an organization may be structured in work cells.
A cell is a self-contained unit dedicated to performing all the operations to complete a product or process or major portion of a product see Figure A different view of organizational structure is called the boundaryless organization also referred to as a network organization, modular corporation, or virtual corporation.
It is not defined by, or limited to, the boundaries imposed by a predefined structure. The boundaryless organization breaks down the artificial boundaries created by a design such as departmentalization and hierarchies, and the external boundaries separating the organization from its suppliers, customers, and other stakeholders see virtual teams in Chapter 3. Many factors have contributed to the rise of the boundaryless organization. One is the need to respond to rapidly changing, highly competitive global markets.
Another factor is new technology that permits organizations to work more effectively. The authors of The Boundaryless Organization: Breaking the Chains of Organizational Structure discuss the means for structuring a boundaryless organization attuned to the needs for integrating resources to serve the customer, strengthening the value chain, and crossing geographic boundaries.
This means that if the strategy significantly changes, structure will likely need to be modified to support the change. A low-cost provider strategy may utilize a functional structure sharing the same support resources with many facilities for example, centralized purchasing, human resources, and engineering , while a strategy to develop close, long-term customer relationships would call for a more decentralized structure for example, sales offices for each major customer or geographic location.
The size of the organization affects structure due to the fact that a larger organization will tend to have more specialized and diverse activities to be managed. For example, a company that has grown large as a result of gaining a significant market share in a new product line may find a need for transformational management as the product enters the mature, low-growth stage.
Another factor affecting structure is the range of technologies used by the organization. Every organization uses various forms of technology to convert inputs into outputs, and the type of technology will impact organizational structure.
For example, a chemical firm using continuous-flow processes will be organized differently than a hospital or a law firm. Organizations can be structured to focus on the core competencies that differentiate the organization from its competitors.
Constraints and mandates due to regulations, laws, and standards may influence organizational structure. For example, ISO registrar organizations must clearly separate their registration auditing organization and services from their consulting services organization. Certain customers may specify that the products they purchase be produced in facilities and by workers separate from products their supplier produces for other customers to protect proprietary designs and processes.
Because of potential contamination, laws may prohibit the commingling of production of certain products, for example, food products and chemicals. The types and levels of security mandated for certain industries, for example, products and services for the U. Regulations governing occupational health and safety affect organizational structure, and laws governing allowable emissions are critical to certain industries. Employees represented by a union are a kind of parallel organization within an organization.
In an ideal situation, the union leader participates with top management of the organization in strategy development as well as decisions affecting the ongoing business of the organization. In the more traditional situation, and, sadly, still the more prevalent situation, the union and organization management may coexist in an adversarial relationship. Union leadership may influence organization structure and reporting relationships, job design, work standards and practices, compensation and benefits, purchasing decisions, supplier selection, employee disciplinary actions, facility expansion or closure, process improvement initiatives, and so on.
Disagreement over the terms of the labor—management contract can result in a production slowdown or strike. The competitive environment in which the organization operates will also affect organizational structure, as a higher pace of change requires a more flexible organizational design that can quickly adapt to new market opportunities.
In this environment a team structure and participative style see Chapter 8 are more likely to succeed than a functional structure with autocratic management. All of the considerations necessary to attract and retain the workforce are factors, for example, availability of housing, transportation, schools, religious entities, shopping, entertainment, and adequate community infrastructure.
The present and future availability of land, buildings, utilities, rail service, roadways, airport, and so on, are important considerations. The prevailing weather patterns, the political climate, and the presence or absence of crime all are factors. Most large organizations will utilize a combination of methods of organization and management.
At the local facility level they might be organized in teams or in functional or process groups, and at the division level organized by product. At higher levels there may be a geographic structure that allows focusing on a particular part of the world for example, United States, Europe, and Asia.
These are major activities for which management personnel have responsibility. Top management also called senior management or executive management is responsible for providing direction in defining the vision, mission, strategies, goals, structures, policies, systems, and objectives.
These managers are also responsible for managing the boundaries between the organization and its major stakeholders, such as investors, business partners, and the communities in which the organization is located.
Middle managers are responsible for carrying out the policies and procedures necessary for achieving the mission, goals, and strategic objectives. Supervisors, while usually considered to be part of management, have the difficult role of thinking and behaving like a manager and at the same time dealing empathetically with the concerns and problems of the workers.
In this role, supervisors must communicate downward the vision, mission, principles, and strategic objectives of the organization, take the actions necessary for their work unit to respond appropriately to those objectives, monitor and maintain the processes and people under their supervision, and be accountable for the quality and quantity of product and service required.
How effectively supervision establishes a motivational environment has a direct effect on the stability of the workforce and the outcomes achieved by the organization. In some structures, a quasi-supervisory role exists: the lead operator. Not an official member of management, the lead operator is often charged with the responsibility for some scheduling, instructing, and inter—work unit liaison activities in addition to performing production work.
The role of supervisor, and to some extent the middle manager, may not be needed in some types of organizational structures, for example, where teams are the predominant structural element in a virtual organization, or when information technology has adequately bridged the gap between the workers and management.
Organization culture has an overarching influence on organization structure see Chapter 8, Section 2 for discussion of culture. Robbins and M. Coulter, Management, 5th ed. Fayol, General Administration, 19— Ashkenas, D. Ulrich, T.
Jick, and S. Davidow and M. See Appendix A for additional references for this chapter. Chapter 2: B. Leadership Challenges I believe leadership lies more in character than in technical competence, but these two are interwoven. As people grow in competence, they gain awareness of a new dimension of their character. Then, as they begin to develop that aspect of their character, they find that their competence also increases.
When is a manager not a leader? When is a leader not a manager? The answer to these questions begs for a precise definition of leader and manager.
Yet, try as we often do to differentiate between the two roles, ambiguity creeps in to blur the line of demarcation. Not so. A leader is an individual recognized by others as the person to lead an effort.
One can not be a leader without one or more followers. A leader might or might not hold an officially designated management-type position or officially have people reporting to her or him. A leader leads people. An organization can also be referred to as a leader, in the sense that it is on the leading edge in technology, innovation, products, services, market share compared with its contemporaries.
A manager is an individual who manages and is responsible for resources people, material, money, time. This is a person officially designated with a management-type position title. Managers manage organizations, processes, systems, projects, and themselves. Leadership focuses on doing the right things; management focuses on doing things right. Also discussed are techniques and tools used in applying, evaluating, and creatively using interpersonal skills motivating, influencing, negotiating, resolving conflict, and empowering.
These are leadership challenges. Strategic leadership involves creating both technical and social systems that are effectively integrated and that address the needs of both customers and employees. Operational leadership requires ensuring that organizational processes are effectively carried out on a day-to-day basis, monitoring performance, and addressing constraints. It involves ensuring that employees understand what is to be done and that they are provided with the appropriate authority, responsibility, requisite skills, tools, and work environment with which to do it.
The levels of employee motivation and empowerment and how conflict is resolved shape as well as serve to measure the organizational culture. Leadership must effectively attend to these softer issues that also affect organizational performance. Debate continues as to whether leaders are born or made. A consensus, but with no conclusive evidence, indicates both are possible.
Much effort and countless pages of print have been expended in attempting to develop a universal profile for a leader. It appears to be an endless and perhaps pointless task, each effort adding but another viewpoint on what constitutes a leader. It has already been stated that the line between the roles of a leader and those of a manager tend to be blurry and often overlap. Most often holding a position with managerial or supervisory responsibilities, this individual exhibits leadership qualities that enable her or him to accomplish more than the position calls for.
May work either behind the scenes or be highly visible to followers. Through personal motivation and power of persuasion, this leader gathers followers to a common goal, sometimes inciting the followers to take physical action against a targeted group. This type of leader has the ability to communicate in the language of the followers to stimulate their emotions, the stamina to build and sustain a high level of personal energy, and the ability to be seen as a fellow group member with issues the same as or similar to those of the group.
A transactional style is one in which the manager views the relationship as one of getting the work done through clear definition of tasks and responsibilities, and providing whatever resources are needed. This view might be likened to a contractual relationship, with rewards positive or negative being associated with achieving the desired goal. It is sometimes equated to charismatic leadership, but is aimed more at elevating the goals of subordinates and enhancing their self-confidence to achieve those goals.
Bob Galvin accomplished this transformational leadership at Motorola with the Six Sigma program, an approach that positioned Motorola to become a high-quality, reliable competitor in its market. Bass identifies several additional leadership types, namely:4 — Educational leaders — Public leaders — Opinion leaders — Legislative leaders To be a leader, one has to believe in oneself, but with reasonable doubt and humility.
One has to have a zeal for the role and genuinely care for people the latter does not apply to ruthless dictators who lead through fear.
It is simply not an option in increasingly boundaryless organizations driven by customer power. Good listening skills, excellent coaching and training skills, sensitivity to customer and employee issues, and a personal commitment to excellence are all essential. Finally, a leader must be a mentor, capable of leading change, and willing to empower followers.
Kouzes and Posner describe a three-phase model of leadership strategy called VIP—vision—involvement—persistence. The leader involves many others in the organization in making the vision a reality. This takes hard work and the persistence to stay the course. Just as organizational structures, processes, and priorities have changed in recent decades, so too have the defined roles and characteristics of an effective leader. Some writers have defined the difference between management and leadership as being the amount of control exercised over people.
Others have recognized that the type of leader needed often depends on the particular situation, such as the organization, its mission, strategies, and competitive environment, and the makeup of the individuals being led.
That is, the role of leadership is based on who has the competence necessary during a particular phase of a project. The traits and actions of leaders will, or should, vary based on the contingencies they face. High task, low relationship. Specific instructions and close supervision of performance are indicated a telling mode. For example, a new or transferred employee is assigned a task for which he has no prior training and needs continual supervision until skill is developed.
High task, high relationship. Decisions are explained and there is opportunity to clarify and ask questions a selling mode. High relationship, low task. Ideas are shared, encouragement is provided, and the leader acts as a coach a participating mode. Low relationship, low task. Responsibility for decisions and implementation are turned over to the employee a delegating mode. For example, an experienced operator knows what to do and how to do it, as well as how to troubleshoot a problem should one occur, and assumes full responsibility for the task assigned without requiring direct supervision.
Daniel Goleman identifies five dimensions, three personal and two social, and related competencies 1. They inspire and enlist others. They encourage collaboration and enable others to take action. Effective leaders share their power and information to strengthen others.
They look for and recognize people who are doing things right. Exemplary leaders continually strive to improve both their intellectual intelligence cognitive capacity and their emotional intelligence. Leadership is a daily balancing act: juggling responsibilities and withstanding pressures.
The inherent nature of human relationships involves ambiguity, uncertainty, and imperfection. How one honors, balances, and integrates the need of both is the real trick of management.
This may include obtaining, allocating, distributing, using, disposing, and accounting for the resources that fall within the purview of the position to which they are assigned.
As stated earlier, there is often overlap between the roles and responsibilities of a leader and a manager. The role of leader is less permanent and, in fact, may either be shared through rotation or acquired through acceptance by followers. Being recognized as a leader often has no relationship to an organizational position title. Thus, a manager may or may not be recognized as a leader. A worker may be recognized as a leader without having any managerial-type title or responsibility.
Organizations often interchange the two terms, for example, calling someone a project leader when the intention is really project manager. Tracks, measures, analyzes, and evaluates the performance, outputs, and outcomes produced by the enterprise, and the contribution toward achieving the strategic goals of the enterprise and addressing the needs of society Sometimes a person may be titled a manager even though she or he is an individual contributor makes a personal professional contribution to benefit the enterprise and is not responsible for managing people.
Business enterprises exist for the purpose of economic performance—profitability. Other societal needs can not be fulfilled without a surplus of economic resources. Performance is accomplished through work. No institution can exist outside of community and society. Management always has to consider both the present and the future, both the short run and the long run. See Chapter 8 for a discussion of management principles, skills, and abilities.
Persons holding management positions lower in the organizational structure usually are responsible for designated short-term outputs, for example, parts produced, engines serviced, reports generated, and so on. Managerial personnel at the high end of the organizational hierarchy are more likely to be responsible for longer-term strategic outcomes affecting the profitability, growth, and overall success of the enterprise.
Techniques for Facilitating or Managing Organizational Change External change is inevitable; internal change is probable. Organizations that continually improve their processes will have a greater probability of success than those who only react to problems. As an organization evolves, there are not only incremental changes, but also increasingly major shifts in strategy, technology, and work organization.
Change can occur as a result of outside forces or inside forces. Fear of change is also a real and valid concern. People are afraid of change because of its potential impact on them. Change management is a process for ensuring that the people affected by change understand the nature of the change and the reasons for it, with the expectation that the new methods of operating will be internalized without creating undue resistance, conflict, and fear.
Ongoing and open communication during any change process is paramount. Although these precautions will not totally remove fear, they can remove some of the uncertainty of not knowing the direction in which the organization is headed. Change Agents Change agents are individuals who play a specific role in the planning and implementation of the change management process. Collaboration of an internal change agent with an external change agent who has extensive experience in the type of change to be implemented can be a useful strategy.
An internal change agent is a person within the organization designated, usually by management, to facilitate a particular change effort.
However, they can be hindered by political pressures that can influence objective feedback when problems arise. These BoK requirements represent the range of content and the cognitive level to which multiple-choice questions can be presented. The content is written from the perspective of practitioners, and its relevance. This book and the Body of Knowledge BOK it supports are intended to form a foundation for further study and application of proven quality principles and practices worldwide.
Each chapter stands alone, and the chapters may be read in any order. Some material reaching beyond the content of the BoK has been added. Request Information. Keywords CQE quality engineering.
Based on the changes to the CQE BoK, as well as helpful feedback from colleagues and reviewers, this revised edition contains the following major changes: A new chapter on risk management An extensively updated glossary New and updated references A new layout The editors included many new textbook and journal article references throughout the entire book.
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